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The Korean wave or Korea fever[1] refers to the significantly increased popularity of South Korean culture around the world. It is also referred to as Hallyu (Hangul: 한류; Hanja: 韓流; RR: Hallyu), from the Korean pronunciation. The term was coined in China in mid-1999 by Beijing journalists surprised by the fast growing popularity of South Koreans and South Korean goods in China.[2]
According to Michael D. Shin, professor of Modern Korean Literature and History at Cornell, Hallyu is overwhelmingly driven by Korean TV dramas. The export earnings of Korean TV dramas far surpass those of Korean music and film.[3]
The total revenue earned from Hallyu ranged from $500 million in 2002 and $1billion in 2005. The revenues from overseas box office of Korean films increased from $31 million in 2004 to $75 million in 2005 (2002 revenue: $15 million). Lineage II, the latest game developed by the Korean game producer NCSoft had 35 million users across 29 countries and generated $22 million in revenues between January-September 2005.[4]
According to statistics from the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Korea in 2001, South Korea exported to other countries of Asia $12,356,000 worth of broadcast programs. Of these, 20.1% went to Taiwan. This figure is high compared with the 9.7% that went to Japan, 9.4% to Hong Kong, 7.9% to Singapore, and 2.8% to Vietnam. Of the total exported broadcast programs, $7,945,000 worth, or 64.3%, were TV dramas consisting of 9,515 programs. Even though the share of dramas among total broadcast exports was high, The price at which they were sold was cheap, at an average of only $840 per program in 2001, a slight increase from $600 in 2000. But in 2004, due to the high popularity of Korean dramas and starsin Japan and other Asian countries, the average price per program of drama rose as high as $4,046. Taiwan was the biggest importer of Korean dramas until 2003.[5]
Today, South Korea is among the world's top ten cultural exporters[6] and the Korean wave began with the export of Korean TV dramas such as Autumn in My Heart, Winter Sonata, Dae Jang Geum (Jewel in the Palace), and Princess Hours across East and Southeast Asia; the growing success of Korean dramas was soon matched by Korean movies, Korean pop music, food[7] and language.[8]
While popular throughout Asia, the Korean wave's influence is most visible in China, Japan and Southeast Asia, spreading to India, Pakistan,[9] the Middle East, and[10] Central Asia.[11] The Korean wave is also expanding beyond Asia through the Internet and has a particularly growing presence in Central and South America,[12] and is gradually becoming popular in the United States[13] and Canada. It is also gaining momentum in Eastern Europe and Scandinavia.[14] It is gathering positive interest in North Africa, attracting a sizable niche audience in Egypt.[15] Currently, the Korean wave is starting to hit the United Kingdom[16], particularly continental Europe,[17][18][19] and Australia.
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It was in 1999 that reports of an emerging “Korean Wave" in China, Taiwan, Vietnam, Hong Kong and other Asian countries started to come out.[20] In 1997, as Korea was shaken by the IMF crisis and its belief in the industrial modernization process was turning weak, there was a widespread societal movement to make use of the cultural industry with its high added value to overcome the national crisis.[21]
The Korean wave is seen as a product of globalization and rise of capitalism in Asia.[22] Advent of giant transnational media corporations in the 1990s led to development of media technology and simultaneous circulation of media images and texts on a global level. This process prepared a system for the manufacture and circulation of popular culture within Asia. This made circulation of South Korean popular culture in Asia possible, and driven by the appeal of upscale hyper-modern lifestyles that South Korean popular culture provided, the Korean Wave spread among the rising middle-class in Asia and beyond.
In general, the success of Korean dramas owe to the well plotted stories, theme, Korea's increasing economic power, sophisticated technology, and the physical attractiveness of the actors and actresses.
The plots of Korean dramas are not old-fashioned but modern with dynamism. The inclusion of everyday-life makes the plots more realistic and attainable to the audience.[23] Also, the visual image, background music, and other technical aspects of the dramas make them more attractive. Finally, in the youth-dominated market, the success of the Korean dramas may be attributed to attractive actors and actresses who embody a number of traits that are very familiar to regular drama viewers and popular fantasies among women.[24] Portrayed sensitivity and depth among male characters in Korean dramas attracts many female viewers.[25] The attractive appearances however are many times criticized as it also encourages plastic surgery of youngsters and women whose fandom for Korean celebrities lead to wanting to look like them.
Many Chinese scholars also attribute success of the Korean Wave to Confucian themes that East Asian cultures are more familiar with, typically dealing with traditional issues such as family, love, and filial piety which been applied in an age of changing technology and values. Many disagree with this view. It is pointed out that East Asian countries have very different cultural preferences, such as between China, a socialist market economy with rapid nuclearization of families, and Japan, a developed capitalist economy.[26] Another reason is the total lack of Confucian themes in many successful Korean cultural products. Also, this view cannot account for the spread of the Korean wave in Mongolia, Southeast Asia and the Middle East.[27]
Another factor may well be South Korea's high affluence within Asia, as one of the booming Four Asian Tigers during the 1960s to 1990s.[28] South Korea is a highly developed country, which is greatly reflected on its dramas, movies and TV shows, giving many viewers a "Korean Dream" and an insight into the Miracle on the Han River.
As of October 2008, South Korea is one of the world's top ten cultural exporters.[6] South Korea's globally expanding entertainment companies are thus able to finance shows and movies with higher production values than elsewhere in Asia and South Korean artists' performances are slickly produced, featuring spectacular special effects.
In 2001, many critics predicted the Korean wave would soon cool down. However contrary to most expectations, the Korean wave has grown stronger from 2003 to 2009.[29] At the moment, the Hallyu faces its turning since many Asian countries like Japan, China and Thailand restrict the expansion of Korean goods on their home markets.[30]
In the paper "Korean cultural capital's phenomenon and cultural nationalism", Lee Dong Yeun identifies many ominous traces of cultural nationalism within the phenomenon of the Korean Wave. He concludes his article by warning, "If the Korean Wave continues to surge, reflecting the diplomatic relations that supports a capitalist logic rather than a strengthening of the communicative power of civil society to provide the possibility of diversifying the cultural tastes of the masses, then it will have to put up a hard fight against China's ethnocentrism and Japan's malleable nationalism."[31]
The 2007 fantasy-action film D-War written and directed by comedian-turned-director Shim Hyung-rae was released in South Korea and the United States to a mixed reception; however, its domestic success was enough to warrant a Sequel. This success was widely attributed to its appeal to Korean nationalism[32], as the film is the first to depict not only oriental dragons but exclusively Korean mythical creatures, such as the Imoogi.
South Korean nation branding policy-makers have imagined Hallyu as a conduit for improving Korea’s image abroad, and have included within its 10-point action plan. Officials believe that Hallyu can play a pivotal role in South Korea’s soft power-the ability to obtain what you want not by conquest but by attraction. In order to explore ways that Hallyu can serve Korea’s nation branding plans, a working session was recently celebrated in the country.
Recent years have seen an increase in interest in the Korean language,[8] Korean cuisine[7] and Hanbok, the traditional Korean dress.
In Vietnam, Korean dramas have increased the number of Vietnamese people learning Korean language. The faculty of oriental studies in Vietnam national university requires high score at entrance examination, and Korean and Japanese language departments are the most popular in the faculty of oriental studies.
The success of South Korean dramas, movies, and music served as a major tourist magnet for South Korea in 2005, with tourists from countries such as Japan, China, the Philippines, Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia and Vietnam.[33]
Korean male celebrities are now among the highest-paid actors outside of Hollywood.[34] According to the South Korean media, Winter Sonata star Bae Yong Joon is now charging US$5 million a film; the highest in Asia. At least nine other Korean male stars earn more than $10 million a year.[2]
The South Korean popular culture known as “Korean wave” has been a big hit in Malaysia as well as around the world thanks to the growing success of South Korean dramas, movies and pop songs.[35] The Korean wave started with popular Korean drama winter sonata when TV3 bought the right to show it on Malaysian TV. "Winter Sonata" was the first of the Korean Waves to crash onto Malaysian shores. A tsunami of Korean TV series such as "Autumn Fairy Tale," "Joyful Girl," "My Love, Patsi," and "Jewel in the Palace" followed its success. "Jewel in the Palace" which showcased Korean food was as addictive as "Winter Sonata" – its lead actress Lee Young-ae is second to Bae Yong-joon as the most popular South Korean celebrity in Malaysia. The soap opera attracted more than 1.3 million viewers per episode. It followed by "Autumn in My Heart" that attracted two million people to watch it. The next Korean Wave then swept Malaysian cinemas. It began with the blockbuster "Shiri," followed by the horror movie, "Phone." These films introduced Malaysians to South Korean movie stars such as Lee Jung-jae and Won Bin.Thanks to the boom of the Korean Wave trend, exports of kimchi to Malaysia increased by 150 percent.[36]
Male stars like Bae Yong Jun, Jang Dong-gun, and Won Bin have been particularly popular among their Singaporean female fans. Korean men have been portrayed in Korean films and television dramas as having striking facial features and being immaculately dressed and emotionally sensitive, prompting discussions in the Singaporean media of “real” and “reel” Korean men.[37][38]
In Indonesia, "Korean Wave" penetrated the adolescent girls in this country. Not only television drama series, but also the boy band and girl band adolescents. Especially since the emergence of Korean dramas ontelevision Indosiar TV in Indonesia, they too began to love the 'world' of South Korean artists. In the year 2007, Full House, a romantic comedy drama, a boombing in this country. Followed later by the Winter Sonata, Autumn in My Heart series, Jewel in the Palace, and Coffee Prince.[39]
Korean Culture initiately came to Cambodia through the media route such as Film and Drama. While the previous Japan and Thai's making impact in Khmer young people had decreased, Korean then gained a decent popularity since the airing of hit drama, Jewel in the palace and lift to new level after the promotional trip to concert of well-received K-pop band, TVXQ appeared to have a large number of audiences.
In 2006, South Korean programs on Chinese government TV networks accounted for more than all other foreign programs combined.[40]
In 2004, 68 percent of Chinese answered they had ever watched Korean TV dramas, and the rate two years later found an increase of 24 percent, standing at 92.2%. The survey led by the Presidential Council on Nation Branding, Korea, discovered that 60% of Chinese who had been exposed to Korean dramas came to have a positive image of Korea. About the growing phenomenon of young women of China trying to replicate themselves as Korean actresses, there is a clear difference between the Korean and Chinese media stances. While Korean media stresses the growing popularity of Korean stars as an example of influence of the Korean wave, Chinese media is criticizing Korean actresses as the foremost symbol of capitalist materialism who are commercializing themselves by undergoing complete, surgical transformation.
Because China is suffering from a trade deficit in cultural goods (ten times greater than in industrial goods), the government has attempted to limit the number of South Korean soap operas and concert tours on several occasions.[41]
Asia Television Limited (ATV) and Cable TV Hong Kong then began showing several series of Korean dramas, laying the Hallyu's foundations. In 2001, the film My Sassy Girl was shown and KBS drama "series" (actually a set of sub-series) Endless Love aired on TV, the first part being Autumn in My Heart. The next year, ATV aired Winter Sonata, part two of the set. Two radio stations, Commercial Radio Hong Kong and Metro Broadcast, introduced radio programmes focusing on Korean popular music and introducing the Korean wave. In 2004, TVB aired several more series: Stairway to Heaven, Full House and Dae Jang Geum, the last of which was particularly popular.
The national television carries DD National started showing the Korean drama "Emperor of the Sea" in 2006 which was quickly followed by the hit drama "A Jewel in the Palace" that same year.[9] The mainstream Bollywood film industry which has often been accused of plagiarism, has allegedly made several illegal remakes of successful Korean films. Some of these films have become significant commercial success. Most prominent among them are Zinda from Oldboy[42] and Ugly Aur Pagli from My Sassy Girl.[43] The region of North-East India and the state of Manipur, Mizoram & Nagaland in particular, has often been cited as the region in India which has been most enthusiastic in its reception to Korean culture. This maybe due to a ban imposed on bollywood films and mainstream Indian television by the terrorists of the separatist insurgency who have been fighting the Indian administration.
After the success of the drama Dae Jang Geum in Iran,[44], Iranian national TV's Channel 2 showed a series of programs called Korean Wave introducing Korean culture, and interviewed the drama's lead actress Lee Young Ae. Soon after, national TV's Channel 3 started showing another Korean drama, Emperor of the Sea denoting the popularity of Korean dramas in Iran. Avid watchers have created fansites for both dramas.[45] At the moment Jumong is being aired on channel 3.
The Korean Wave began in earnest in Japan after the airing of Winter Sonata on NHK, with an especially warm reception for lead actor Bae Yong Joon whom the Japanese have affectionally en masse nicknamed Yon-sama. Several Korean artists have attempted to make careers in Japan with the most successful being Boybands DBSK and Big Bang .[46] On August 17, 2010, Girl group Kara’s single debut album "Mister" ranked #5 in the weekly singles making them the first ever Korean girl group to do so. Oricon Style reported the girls’ success as, “First time in 29 years and 8 months since a foreign girl group has entered the top 10 with their debut album.” [47] The Korean wave became a sign of acceptance from not only the Japanese culture but also internationally. The manga was reproduced and sold everywhere from Malaysia, China, and Korea.
The appeal of ‘Winter Sonata’ has derived from the serial’s play on the possibilities of life with one’s first love. It appealed mostly to the middle-aged Japanese women have have lived in an era where familial roles were heavily gendered and where the change of an era has made youth the centre of popular culture in Japan. To them, Bae represented “an old-fashioned gentleman: cultured, well-raised, and kind- nothing like the shallow pretty boys who seem to dominate Japanese pop culture.[48]
According to the Presidential Council on Nation Branding, Korea, in 2004, 61 percent of Japanese said that they had watched Korean dramas and the rate in two years rose to 67.7%. About 42.5% of Japanese said their perception and impression of Korea changed in a positive manner after watching Korean drama.
ABS-CBN, after earning a windfall with the introduction of the Taiwanese hit teen drama Meteor Garden, almost missed out on the Korean Wave. Continually being out-gunned by its rival GMA Network in airing Korean dramas, it has decided to back pedal on the Taiwanese and Latin American series and grab as many series as they can from the three of the biggest South Korean television networks (KBS, MBC and SBS) in order to ensure a steady supply of Korean dramas, which are insanely popular in the country and at the same time to compete against GMA. As of 2009, Boys Over Flowers is the premiere Korean drama on Philippine television. However, their best airing of a Korean drama so far is Princess Hours, which resulted in a rerun because of its immense popularity. As a result of the popularity of Korean dramas, ABS-CBN had one teleserye shot in South Korea (Only You), which is a remake of an SBS drama. You're Beautiful or He's Beautiful will soon be released under ABS-CBN, this starring F.T. Island member Lee Hong Ki.
GMA Network had a jump start on the Korean drama craze, it was their answer to the Meteor Garden phenomenon that is continuing to give top ratings and catapulted the once No. 2 channel to the No. 1 position. They have obtained franchises like My Name is Kim Sam Soon, Stairway To Heaven, Full House, the Winter Sonata, Autumn in My Heart series, Jewel in the Palace, Coffee Prince and Jumong, all of them insanely popular. They also made official Filipino remakes of My Name is Kim Sam Soon, Stairway To Heaven and Full House.
The Pili Satellite Television Channel was the first in Taiwan to broadcast Korean TV shows. Serial dramas were dubbed into Taiwanese and comedies were dubbed into Korean. However, the channel (established 1995) suffered from a lack of publicity on Taiwan's cable TV networks. A larger nationwide cable TV network, Gala Television, began broadcasting Korean dramas dubbed in Mandarin, inciting the Korean Wave in earnest. Soon after, other TV networks followed the trend, and shows featured Korean cuisine, travel, culture and language. Record companies also imported Korean music.GTV is particularly famous for making its “place” as a cable TV chanlle, and currently two-fifths of its dramas are Korean. Other Taiwanese TV stations such as FTV, CTV, Power TV, E-Phil have also been airing Korean dramas.[49] When several networks even stopped producing their own programs and imported Korean ones to save costs, some artists called on the Taiwanese government to limit the broadcasting of Korean and Japanese shows. Commercial aviation links that were terminated after the 1992 split in relations between Taiwan and South Korea were reinstated in 2003. Travel agencies began promoting North Korea as a tourist destination.
The Korean Music Festival takes place annually (since 2003) at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles and is possibly the largest Korean music festival outside South Korea.[50] In 2007, the 5th Festival was the finale to the 2007 LA Hallyu Festival, which also included various events such as the Korean Culture Expo and the Korean Cinema Showcase at Universal Studios. The theme was We Are One. TVXQ was the biggest attraction with the concert focusing heavily on them because of their large world record holding fanbase Cassiopeia.
Several Korean artists have or will plan to debut in the US. BoA's debut single "Eat You Up" was distributed to 300 websites in 31 countries on 21 October 2008.[51] BoA's self-titled American debut album was released on March 17, 2009. It was re-released in the U.S. as "BoA Deluxe" on September 22, 2009 with extra tracks and remixes.
Rain appeared in the 2008 film Speed Racer and despite its mediocre success, has continued acting in the US, starring in Ninja Assassin in 2009, again produced by Joel Silver and the Wachowski Brothers.[52][53]
Vietnam and China are markets where the "Korean wave" has penetrated into the consumer choice and behavior of its respective citizens. The Samsung Economic Research Institute in its special report labeled progress of the "Korean wave" in Vietnam and China as in the "3rd stage", out of a potential four stages. In this stage "Made in Korea" products become increasingly popular.[54]
In recent years, several foreign cosmetic firms built factories in Vietnam including ‘Debon’ from Korea, to profit from the demand for the Korean style. On the streets in Hanoi and other big cities in Vietnam, it is easy to spot the girls wearing the clothes, make-up and hairstyles popularized by Korean actresses. In fact, the phenomenon, Korean wave, has swept through Vietnam, changing the Vietnamese people’s consumption pattern. They prefer Korean clothes, cosmetics, and cellular phones.[55]
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